1.       Comma Usage. Commas usually function within sentences to separate elements.

Omitting needed commas or inserting needless ones can confuse the reader.

 Search your English Grammar text for a summary of the uses of a comma.

If I have written a problem number on your paper that begins with a (1), refer to the following rules:

 

1.1.      Use a comma and a coordinating conjunction between two main clauses (independent clauses) of a sentence.

1.1.1.    Remember this: independent clauses make sense by themselves.

1.1.1.1.    If you forget the comma or the coordinating conjunction, you have written a run-on sentence.

1.1.1.1.1.    Remember the coordinating conjunctions with this word: BOYSFAN: but, or, yet, so, for, and, or nor.

Mr. Smith did not attend the meeting, nor did he send his report.

 

We believe you have good ideas, and the conference committee should incorporate several of them.

 

Charles Dickens created the character of Mr. Micawber, he also created Uriah Heep.

 

1.2.      Use a comma between consecutive adjectives where the comma is used instead of and.

Mary hated the dark, gloomy office.

1.3.      Use a comma to set off parenthetical information.

Mr. Walker, the president, arrived on time for the guest speaker.

Jane Gates, our personnel manager, will help you complete the leave form.

1.4.      Use a comma to set off the year if it follows the month and day.

On June 28, 1996, I will receive my five-year bonus.

Mr. Jackson was promoted in January 1993 to director of sales.

1.4.1.1.    Omit the comma when only the month and year are given.

1.5.      Use a comma to set off the name of anyone you are addressing directly.

Let’s end this report, Angela, with the budget results.

1.6.      Use a comma to clarify restrictive and nonrestrictive elements.

1.6.1.    Nonrestrictive Clauses interrupt a sentence to provide extra information.

J Read the sentence aloud to hear the interruption. That is where the commas usually go.

 

1.6.1.1.    If the sentence makes sense without the words, the words are nonrestrictive; the information is nonessential; it does not restrict the meaning of the sentence.

1.6.1.1.1.    In the following examples, the nonrestrictive element is in italics.

The company, which is located in Texas, has a good reputation.

The company has a good reputation.

 

Elizabeth Blackwell was the first woman to graduate from an American medical school, in 1849.

 

Elizabeth Blackwell was the first woman to graduate from an American medical school.

 

Blackwell, who published books and papers on medicine, practiced pediatrics and gynecology.

 

1.6.1.1.2.    If the sentence looses its meaning without the words, the words are restrictive; it does restrict the meaning of the sentence. No commas are necessary. 

1.6.2.    Always place commas before and after nonrestrictive elements.

1.6.2.1.    Restrictive Clauses limit or identify something in the sentence. Without them the sentence would no meaning; thus, they restrict the meaning of the sentence and must be set off by any punctuation.

1.6.2.1.1.    In the following sentence, out of the group of girls, certain ones are selected, or distinguished.

1.6.2.1.1.1.    In this sentence, the mean of the word “girls” is restricted to mean only “certain ones.”

1.6.2.1.1.1.1.     The restrictive clause is essential to the meaning of the sentence.

 

These are the girls who deserve promotion.

 

1.6.2.1.2.    If we say

 

Mother found the book which you lost, we refer to a particular book, which is identified by the adjective clause which you lost.

 

1.6.2.1.3.    If we toss out a statement containing only the principal clause Mother found the book, someone is certain to ask which book, and the identifying element must then be added.

1.6.2.1.4.    Observe the restrictive meaning in the following sentences:

 

This is the house that was sold

1.6.2.1.4.1.     (One house is singled out in a row or group of houses).

 

These are the citizens who deserve the respect of their neighbors.

1.6.2.1.4.2.     (certain persons are chosen out of all citizens)

This is the room where the tragedy occurred.

1.6.2.1.4.3.    (One room is distinguished among all the rooms of the house).

1.7.      Use a comma it identify Coordinate adjectives.

1.7.1.1.1.    Insert a comma between all elements of a series of three or more items of equal importance. (words, phrases, or clauses)

1.7.1.1.1.1.    When three or more items are listed in a series, place a comma before the “and” preceding the last item.

 

New job descriptions were written for clerks, word processors, and administrative assistants.

 

He hit the ball, dropped the bat, and ran to first base.

 

We purchased paper clips, printer ribbons, paper, pencils, and pens.

 

1.7.1.1.2.    The comma before the "and" is unnecessary if you are in control of things; however, if you do not use this comma (especially when the list is complex or lengthy), these last two items in the list will try to glom together (like macaroni and cheese).

We purchased paper clips, printer ribbons, paper, pencils and pens.

 

1.8.      Use a comma with two or more adjectives that equally modify the same word.

1.8.1.    When properly written, it is said to be “coordinate,” and may be separated either by “and” or by a comma.

1.8.1.1.    This is the: "That tall, distinguished, good looking fellow" rule (as opposed to "the little old lady").

1.8.1.1.1.    If you can insert an “and” or a “but” between the adjectives, a comma will probably belong there.

 

"He is a tall and distinguished fellow"

 

"I live in a very old and run-down house."

 

1.8.1.2.    You would not say:

 

"She is a little and old lady,"

or

 

"I live in a little and purple house."

 

1.8.2.    You would write:

 

"He is a tall, distinguished man" and

 

"I live in a very old, run-down house."

 

1.9.      Use a comma after introductory elements. Introductory elements modify a word or words in the main clause that follows. These elements are usually set off from the rest of the sentence with a comma. For example:

1.9.1.    The Subordinate Clause is

 

(J an incomplete thought; it doesn’t make sense by itself)

 

Even when identical twins are raised apart

 

1.9.1.1.    when you add an INDEPENDENT CLAUSE the meaning becomes complete.

 

Even when identical twins are raised apart, they grow up very like each other.

 

Before we can reach our goal

 

Before we can reach our goal, we need additional revenue.

 

1.9.2.    Use a comma to offset a Verbal or Verbal Phrase:

 

(J A Verbal is a noun acting like a verb)

 

Explaining the similarity, some researchers claim that one’s genes are one’s destiny.  

 

Concerned, other researchers deny the claim.

 

Before we can reach our goal, we need additional revenue.

1.9.3.    Prepositional Phrase:

(J A Prepositional Phrase begins with a preposition and ends with a noun)

 

In a debate that has lasted centuries, scientists use identical twins to argue for or against genetic destiny.

 

1.9.4.    Use a comma to offset Transitional or Parenthetical Expressions:

1.9.4.1.    Set them off with a comma or commas.

1.9.4.1.1.    They form links between ideas with words like

1.9.4.1.2.    however, moreover, thus, for example, for instance, and of course.

 

Of course, scientists can now look directly at the genes themselves.

 

For instance, an infected person covers his mouth to cough.

 

Few people would know, or even guess, the most celebrated holiday on earth.

 

The holiday is, surprisingly, New Year’s Day.

 

1.10.    An appositive is a noun or noun substitute that renames another noun just before it. Use a comma or commas to offset them.

1.10.1.    Many are nonrestrictive.

 

Toni Morison’s fifth novel, Beloved, won the Pulitzer Prize in 1988.

 

1.11.    Restrictive Elements limit the word referred to.

1.11.1.    Removing the RESTRICTIVE ELEMENT will change the meaning of the sentence or leaving it incomplete.

1.11.1.1.    Because it is essential, a restrictive element is NOT set off with commas. 

 

The company rewards employees who work hard.  

 

1.11.2.    Do not set off Restrictive Appositives.

1.11.2.1.    Like other restrictive elements, they limit or define the word to which they refer. The sentence above, without the restrictive element would read:

 

Toni Morison’s fifth novel won the Pulitzer Prize in 1988.

 

1.11.2.1.1.    The meaning remains in tact.

1.11.2.2.    Note the example in this restrictive appositive.

 

The art critic Anthony Evetts says that Morison’s work “stands radiantly on its own as an American epic.”

 

1.11.2.2.1.1.    By removing the restrictive appositive (Anthony Evetts) the meaning of the sentence is altered because we don’t know who “the critic” is.

 

1.12.    Use commas with Direct Quotations

1.12.1.    In most cases, use commas to set off a direct quotation from the identifying tag—the phrase that identifies the speaker (he said, she answered).

 

Emerson said to Whitman, “I greet you at the beginning of a great career.”

 

“I greet you at the beginning of a great career,” Emerson said to Whitman.

 

“I greet you,” Emerson said to Whitman, “at the beginning of a great career.”

 

1.12.2.    When the identifying tag comes between two complete sentences, however, the tag is introduced by a comma but followed by a period.

 

“Winning isn’t everything,” Vince Lombardi said. “It’s the only thing.”

 

1.12.3.    For quotations of more than four lines, indent five spaces from each side margin.

1.12.3.1.    Formal quotations are introduced by a colon and enclosed in quotation marks.

1.12.3.1.1.    When in apposition or if the direct object of a verb, it will be preceded by a comma and enclosed in quotation marks. 

 

I am reminded of the advice of my neighbor, “Never build a fence higher than your own curiosity.

 

1.12.4.    When an attributive phrase follows a quote, the comma is enclosed within the quotation marks.

 

“I can’t attend,” she said.

 

1.12.5.    Use quotation marks to convey special emphasis of words or to set off terms being defined. When possible, print the special emphasis word in italics. Otherwise, simple place the word or words within quote marks.

 

The word tintinnabulation, meaning the ringing sound of bells, was used by Poe in his poem “The Bells.”

 

1.12.6.    Use single quotation marks to enclose a quotation within a quotation.

 

Claire noted, “Liberace always said, ‘I cried all the way to the bank.’”

 

1.13.    Use commas to offset Tag questions, words of direct address and mild interjections.

 

Yes, the editorial did have a fine point.

 

Jones should be allowed to vote, should he not?

 

With all due respect, sir, I will not do that.

 

Well, you will never know who did it.

 

1.14.    Use commas to offset Phrases expressing contrast.

 

The essay needs less wit, more pith.       

 

The substance, not the style, is important.

 

1.15.    Use commas to offset Absolute Phrases

1.16.    Absolute phrases modify a whole main clause rather than any word in the clause

1.16.1.    Usually, they consist of at least a participle (such as done or having torn) and its subject (a noun or pronoun).

1.16.1.1.    Absolute phrases can occur at almost any point in the sentence, and a comma or commas always set them off.

 

Domestic recycling having succeeded, the city now wants to extend the program to businesses.

 

Their toes tapping, they watched the auditions.

 

His fear increasing, he waited to enter the haunted house.

 

Many soldiers were lost in Southeast Asia, their bodies never recovered.

 

1.17.    Coordinating conjunctions that link main clausesrequire th Use commas: 

 

BOYSFAN: and, but, or, nor, for, so, and yet

 

Caution: If you use only a comma between main clauses, you will create a run-on sentence.

 

1.17.1.    When these link words or phrases, do not use a comma.

 

Emily plays and sings Irish and English folk songs. 

 

1.17.1.1.    However, do use a comma when a coordinating conjunction joins main clauses.

1.17.1.1.1.    A main clause has a subject and a predicate (but no subordinating word at the beginning) and makes a complete statement.

 

1.18.    Use commas to Avoid confusion (your teacher’s escape rule).

1.18.1.    Never use only one comma between a subject and its verb.

 

Believing completely in oneself (no comma here, even though one might well pause) is essential for success.

 

1.18.2.    In some sentences, words may run together in unintended and confusing ways unless a comma separates them. Note the ambiguity in the following sentences; meaning is not immediately clear.

 

Soon after the business closed its doors.

 

To Bob Smith is a good name.

 

Those who can sprint the final lap.

 

1.18.2.1.    Without the comma, can appears to be an auxiliary verb (“Those who can sprint…”), and the sentence seems incomplete.

1.18.2.1.1.    The comma tells readers to pause, preventing confusion.

 

Soon after, the business closed its doors.

 

To Bob, Smith is a good name.

 

Those who can, sprint the final lap.

 

1.18.3.    Use a comma to acknowledge the omission of a repeated word, usually a verb, and to separate words repeated consecutively.

1.18.3.1.    Note the unbroken flow of these sentences:

 

Pam carried the box; Tim, the suitcase.

 

Everything bad that could have happened, happened.

 

1.18.4.    Use commas only where required.

1.18.4.1.    Commas can make sentences choppy and confusing if used more often than needed or if they are used in violation of rules.

1.18.4.1.1.    The following are some common misuses of commas. Avoid these.

1.18.4.2.    Do not use a comma after a subject or verb. Wrong examples:

 

Anyone with breathing problems, should not exercise during smog alerts.

 

1.18.4.3.    Do not separate a pair of words, phrases, or subordinate clauses joined by and, or, or nor.

 

Asthmatics are affected by ozone, and sulfur oxides.

 

1.18.4.4.    Don’t use a comma after and, but, although, because, or another conjunction.

 

Smog is dangerous and, sometimes even fatal.

 

1.18.4.5.    Do not set off restrictive elements.

 

Even people, who are healthy, should be careful.

 

1.18.4.6.    Do not set off a series.

 

Cars, factories, and even bakeries, contribute to smog.

 

1.18.4.7.    Do not set off an indirect quotation or a single word that isn’t a nonrestrictive appositive.

 

Experts say, that the pollutant, ozone, is especially damaging.

 

1.19.    Do Not use a comma before a Dependent Clause at the end of a sentence

1.19.1.    Look at these two examples:

 

Faulty: Jane Addams founded Hull House, because she wanted to help Chicago’s poor.

 

Revised: Jane Addams founded Hull House because she wanted to help Chicago’s poor.

 

1.20.    The Comma or period falls inside closing quotation marks, even when single and double quotation marks are combined.

 

“You was pokin’ your big ears into our business,” george said. “I don’t like nobody to get nosey.”

 

1.21.    Between a Phrase and a Clause: Use a comma not a semicolon.

1.21.1.1.1.    Faulty: Increasing rapidly; computer crime poses a challenge for government, financial, and military agencies.

1.21.1.1.2.    Revised: Increasing rapidly, computer crime poses a challenge for government, financial, and military agencies.

 

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2.       Punctuation Problems

2.1.      Use a Colon:

2.1.1.    after a salutation in a business letter.

 

Dear Mrs. Jones.

 

2.1.2.    to introduce a list with an expression such as for example, nearly, that is, or following.

 

We introduced a number of low-cost samples: for example, paintbrushes, poster board, and markers.

 

“There are three kinds of lies: lies, damned lies, and statistics.” (Mark Twain)

 

Faulty: The evening news is a battleground for the three major television networks; CBS, NBC, and ABC.

 

Revised: The evening news is a battleground for the three major television networks: CBS, NBC, and ABC.

 

2.1.3.    to separate the title from the subtitle of a book.

 

Grammar A-Z: Everything You Wanted to Know About Grammar but Were Afraid to Ask

 

2.1.4.    to represent the now “to” in a ration.

 

10:1

 

2.1.5.    to separate hours and minutes in expressions of time.

 

1:30

 

2.2.      Use a Semicolon:

 

 J Use a semicolon between two independent clauses.

 

J What comes after a semicolon generally explains or clarifies what came before the semicolon.

 

2.2.1.    Use semicolons:

2.2.1.1.    Between a dependent and an independent clause

 

Faulty: Because new drugs can now suppress the body’s immune reaction; fewer organ transplants are rejected by the body.

 

Revised: Because new drugs can now suppress the body’s immune reaction, Fewer organ transplants are rejected by the body.

 

2.2.2.    Use a semicolon when a coordinating conjunction (but, or, yet, so, for, and, or nor) is omitted between two complete thoughts.

 

The Finance Department approved the increase; the Marketing Department.

 

2.2.3.    Use a semicolon when two complete thoughts are linked by a transitional expression

2.2.3.1.    Transitional expressions include: however, therefore, accordingly, consequently, and moreover.

2.2.3.1.1.    Place a semicolon in front and a comma behind.

 

The manager has agreed to the project; however, we must await budget approval.

 

Mary did not receive the promotion; therefore, she left the company.

 

2.2.4.    Use a semicolon to separate a series of phrases that already contain commas.

 

The board members went to different countries: Alicia Johnson, England; Landon Sommer, France; and Chris Randolph, Germany.

 

2.2.5.    Place semicolons and colons outside quotation marks.

 

2.3.      Exclamation point

2.3.1.    Save the exclamation point for something which deserves emphasis, not simple statements.

2.3.1.1.    Use only one at a time.

2.3.2.    All dashes, question marks, and exclamation points are placed inside quotation marks only if they belong to the quotation.

2.3.3.    Punctuate outside the parenthesis (When a wholly detached expression or sentence is parenthesized, the final stop comes before the last mark of parenthesis).

 

2.4.      Hyphen

2.4.1.    Use when a compound noun lacks a noun as one of its elements.

2.4.1.1.    two-by-fours

2.4.1.2.    make-believe

2.4.2.    Use when a compound noun ends with a prepositional phrase

2.4.2.1.    jack-of-all-trades

2.4.2.2.    stay-at-home

2.4.3.    Use when a compound noun has a single letter as its first element.

2.4.3.1.    a-frame

2.4.3.2.    x-ray

2.4.4.    Use when using two nouns that signify one person or thing that has two functions.

2.4.4.1.    editor-publisher

2.4.4.2.    realtor-owner

2.4.5.    Use when the prefix is “co” and the base word begins with “o,” use a hyphen except in a few words.

2.4.5.1.    co-owner

2.4.5.2.    co-organizer

2.4.5.3.    co-op

2.4.5.4.    If the base word begins with any other letter, omit the hyphen.

2.4.5.4.1.    copilot

2.4.5.4.2.    coworker

2.4.5.4.3.    cosigner

2.5.      Ellipsis:

2.5.1.    In MLA style, use the Ellipsis mark to indicate omissions within quotations.

2.5.1.1.    The ellipsis consists of three spaced periods and must be surrounded by brackets [...].

2.5.1.1.1.    It usually indicates an omission from a quotation.

2.5.1.1.1.1.    However, where the ellipsis appears in the sentence changes the number of periods used.

2.5.1.1.1.1.1.     Notice the placement of spaces before and after the ellipsis in the following examples:

2.5.2.    Omission of the middle of a sentence:

 

“But all these places […] are so different from each other that one couldn’t help thinking: this kind of talk