Writing a Research Paper<= /span>

I. The process of writing a research pa= per can be divided into six steps:1 S= elect a topic that you can readily research.

2 L= imit your topic and make the purpose of your paper clear.

3 G= ather information on your limited topic.

4 P= lan your paper and take notes on your limited topic.

5 W= rite the paper.=

6 U= se an acceptable format and method of documentation.

This segment explains and illustrates each of these steps and then provides a mo= del research paper.=

A. = Step 1: Select a Topic That You Can Readily Research<= /span>

i. <= /span>Researching at a Local Library

01. First of all, do a subject search of your library's catalog (as described on page 372) and see whether there are several books on your general topic. For example, if you initially choose the broad topic "parenting," try to find at least three books on being a parent. = Make sure that the books are actually available on the library shelves.

02. Next, go to aperiodical5 index in your library (see p= ages 375-378) to see if there are a fair number of magazine, newspaper, or journ= al articles on your subject. For instance, when Sonya Philips, author of the m= odel research paper "Successful Families," visited her local library, = she found a CD-ROM index called Magazine /^ex PlM5, which indexes all the artic= les published over a three- to four-year period in over four hundred popular magazines. When Sonya typed in the search term "parenting," Magazine Index Plus came back with hundreds of "hits"—titles, locations, and brief descriptions of articles about parenting. The index also marked those articles that were in magazines available in Sonya's library.

ii. = Researching on the Internet

01. If you have access to the Internet on a home or libra= ry computer, you can use it to determine if resources are available for your topic.

02. The first step is to go to the subjects section of a library catalog or large online bookseller to find relevant books. (Don't worry—you don't have to buy any books; you= 're just browsing for information.) As mentioned in Chapter 21, two of the larg= est online booksellers are Barnes and Noble and Amaz= on.

03. "I checked out both Barnes and Noble and Amazon = as I began my research," said Sonya Philips. "When I went to their websites, I saw that I could search for books by subject, and I knew that 1= was in business. All 1 had to do was click on a box = titled 'Browse Subjects.'

04. "Barnes and Noble has= a category called 'Parenting and Families,' and when I clicked on that, I got= a bunch of subcategories, including one for 'Teenagers.' I clicked on 'Teenag= ers' and that brought up a list of hundreds of books! I went through the list, a= nd when I got to a book that sounded promising, I just clicked on that title a= nd up like magic came reviews of the book—and sometimes a table of conte= nts and a summary as well! All this information helped me decide on the dozen o= r so books I eventually picked out that seemed relevant to my paper. I then went= to my local library and found five of those titles on the shelves. Another tit= le was a recent paperback, so I went to a nearby bookstore and bought it." (If you find relevant books in your online search that your local library d= oes not own, ask your research librarian if he or she can obtain them from anot= her library through an interlibrary loan program.)

05. Next, determine if magazine or newspaper articles on = your topic are available online. You can go about this in several ways. Your Internet service provider (such as America Online) has a built-in "engine" that allows you to search the Internet for any topic you like. When you type in a keyword or keywords related to your topic, you'll get back a listing of sources, or "hits,&q= uot; on the Internet. Sonya relates her experience searching the Internet in this way:

06. "First I typed in the word 'parenting' in the ke= yword box.” she said. “1 got more than a hundred thousand hits! So I tried more specific search t= erms. I tried 'parenting and teenagers,' 'parenting and television,' 'parenting a= nd adolescents.' Those search terms worked better, and I found some useful sites—like 'The Television Project,' which is an online resource that doesn't exist anywhere else— but I was still getting lots of stuff I couldn't use, such as sites that were selling products, or parents' discuss= ion groups, and so on.

07. “So I asked my instructor how to look just for magazine or newspaper articles. She suggested I go directly to the sites of some popular publications. I went to three sites (Newsweek, at newsweek.= com; Time, time.com; and USA Today, at usatoday.com). I= was able to search each one for recent articles about parenting, and it was cle= ar there was plenty of material that related to my topic.

08. However you choose to do your research, the outcome is the s= ame: If both books and articles are available, pursue your topic. Otherwise, you= may have to choose another topic. You cannot write a paper on a topic for which research materials are not readily available.

B. <= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Step 2: Limit Your Topic and<= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:Arial;mso-b= idi-font-family: "Times New Roman";color:white'>

C. <= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Make the Purpose of Your Paper Clear=

a. <= /span>A research paper should thoroughl= y develop a limited topic. The paper should be narrow and deep rather = than broad and shallow. Therefore, as you read through books and articles, look for ways to limit your general topic.

b. <= /span>For instance, as Sonya read through materials on the general topic “parenting,” she chose to limit her topic to the particular problems of parents raising chil= dren in today's culture. Furthermore, she decided to limit it even more by focus= ing on what successful parents do to deal with those challenges. To take some o= ther examples, the general topic “drug abuse” mi= ght be narrowed to successful drug treatment programs for adolescents. After doing some reading on the worldwide problem of overpopulation, you might de= cide to limit your paper to the birth-control policies enforced by the Chinese government. The broad subject “death” could= be reduced to euthanasia or the unfair pricing practices in some funeral homes. “Divorce” might be limited to its most damaging effects = on the children of divorced parents; “stress in everyday life” could be narrowed to methods of reducing stress in the workplace.

c. <= /span>The subject headings in your library= 's catalog and periodicals indexes will give you helpful ideas about how to li= mit your subject. For example, under the subject heading “Parenting”= ; in the book file were several related headings, such as “moral and ethic= al considerations of parenting” and “step-parenting.” In add= ition, there was a list of seventy-eight books, including several titles that suggested limited directions for research: parents and discipline, parenting and adolescent girls, how parents can protect their kids from violence, parents' questions about teenagers' development. = Under the subject heading “Parenting” in the libr= ary's periodicals index were subheadings and titles of many articles which sugges= ted additional limited topics that a research paper might explore: how parents = can limit the impact of TV on kids, keeping the lines of communication open bet= ween parents and teenagers, how much influence parents can have on kids, secrets to raising a successful teen. The point is that subj= ect headings and related headings, as well as book and article titles, may be of great help to you in narrowing your topic. Take advantage of them.=

d. <= /span>Do not expect to limit your topic an= d make your purpose clear all at once. You may have to do quite a bit of reading as you work out the limited focus of your paper. Note that many research papers have one of two general purposes. Your purpose might be to make and defend a point of some kind. (For example, your purpose in a paper might be to provi= de evidence that elected officials should be limited to serving a single term = in office.) Or, depending on the course and the instructor, your purpose might simply be to present information about a particular subject. (For instance, you might be asked to write a paper describing the most recent scientific findings about = the effect of diet on heart disease.)

&= nbsp;

D. = Step 3: Gather Information on Your Limited Topic=

<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>a. After you have a good sense of your limited topic, you can begin gathering releva= nt information. A helpful way to proceed is to sign out the books that you need from your library. In addition, make copies of all relevant articles from magazines, newspapers, or journals. If your library has an online periodica= ls database, you may be able to print those articles right out.

b. <= /span>In other words, take the steps neede= d to get all your key source materials together in one place. You can then sit a= nd work on these materials in a quiet, unhurried way in your home or some other place of study.=

E. = Step 4: Plan Your Paper and Take Notes on Your Limited Topic

i. <= /span>Preparing a Scratch Outline

<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>a. As you carefully read through the material you have gathered, think constantly about the specific content and organization of y= our paper. Begin making decisions about exactly what information you will present and = how you will arrange it. Prepare a scratch outline for your paper that shows bo= th its thesis and the areas of support for the thesis. Try to plan at least th= ree areas of support.

Thes= is: Support: ___________________________________________________________________<= o:p>

____= _______________________________________________________________<= /span>

<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>b. Following, for example, is the brief outline that Sonya Philips prepared for her paper= on successful parenting.

Thesis: &n= bsp; There are things parents can do to overcome the negative influen= ces hurting their families.

<= /o:p>

Support: (1) Create quality time w= ith families

(2) Increase families' sense of community

(3) Minimize the impact of media and technol= ogy

=

ii. = Note-Taking

01. <= /span>With a tentative outline in mind, yo= u can begin taking notes on the information that you expect to include in your pa= per. Write your notes on four- by six-inch or five- by eight-inch cards, on shee= ts of loose-leaf paper, or in a computer file. The notes you take should be in= the form of direct quotations, summaries in your own words, or both. (At= times you may also paraphrase—use an equal numbe= r of your own words in place of someone else’s words. Since most research involves condensing information, you will summarize much more than you will paraphrase.)

02. <= /span>A direct quotation must be written exactly as it appears in the or= iginal work. But as long as you don't change the meanin= g, you may omit words from a quotation if they are not relevant to your point= . To show such an omission, use three spaced periods (known as ellipses) in plac= e of the deleted words:=

03. <= /span>Original passage:<= /p>

' We cannot guarantee that bad things will happen, but = we can argue that good things are not happening. It is the contention of this repo= rt that increasing numbers of young people are left to t= heir own devices at a critical time in their development.

04. <= /span>Direct quotation with ellipses:=

' "We cannot guarantee that bad things will happen= , but we can argue that good things are not happening. [. . .] [I]ncreasing numbers of young people are left to their own de= vices at a critical time in their development. "

05. <= /span>(Note that there are four dots in the above example; the first dot indicates the period at the end of the sentenc= e. The capital letter in brackets shows that the word was capitalized by the student but did not begin the sentence in the original source.)=

06. <= /span>In a summary, you condense the origi= nal material by expressing it in your own words. Summaries = may be written as lists, as brief paragraphs, or both. On the next page is = one of Sonya Phillips’s summary note cards:

07. <= /span>Keep in mind the following points ab= out your research notes:

II. Write on only one side of each card = or sheet of paper.=

Movie content

Study conducted i= n 1996 showed that of PG-13 movies, 91 percent had crude language, 89 percent = had obscene language, 45 percent had actual or suggested sex. Worrisome because most parents assume PG-13 movies are OK for their kids.<= /o:p>

Medved and Medved, 62

&nbs= p;

A. <= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> Write only one kind of information, = from one source, on any one card or sheet. For example, the sample card above has information on only one idea (movie content) from one source (Medved and Medved).

i. <= /span>At the top of each card or sheet, wr= ite a heading that summarizes its content. This will help you organize the different kind= s of information that you gather.ii. = Identify the source and page number = at the bottom.=

a. <= /span>Whether you quote or summarize, be s= ure to record the exact source and page from which you take each piece of informat= ion. In a research paper, you must document all information that is not com= mon knowledge or not a matter of historical record. For example, the birth and death dates of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., are established facts and do not need documenting. On the other hand, the average number of hours worked annually today compared with the 1980s is a specialized fact that should be documented. As you read several sources on a subject, you will develop a sense of what authors regard as generally share= d or common information and what is more specialized information that must = be documented.=

b. <= /span>If you do not document information t= hat is not your own, you will be stealing. The formal term is plagiarizing—u= sing someone else's work as your own, whether you borrow a single idea, a senten= ce, or an entire essay. Plagiarism is a direct violation of academic code; if y= ou pass someone else's work off as your own, you risk being failed or even expelled. Also, plagiarism undermines the money, time, and energy you have spent in school, cheating you out of an education.=

c. <= /span>With the accessibility of the Internet—especially websites targeting students— comes new temptation to plagiarize. But just remember that= those sites are just as accessible to your instructor as they are to you. Many writing teachers are aware of these Internet "resources" and can = spot "recycled" work.d. <= /span>If you use another person's material= , you must acknowledge your source. When you cite a source properly, you give cre= dit where it is due, you provide your readers with a way to locate the original material on their own, and you demonstrate that your work is carefully researched.

B. = Step 5: Write the Paper

i. <= /span>After you have finished your reading= and note-taking, you should have a fairly clear idea of th= e plan of your paper. Make a final outline and use it as a guide to write your fir= st full draft. If your instructor requires an outline as part of your paper, y= ou should prepare either a topic outline, which contains your thesis plus supporting words and phrases; or a sentence outline, which consists of comp= lete sentences. In the model paper shown on pages 399-409, a topic outline appea= rs on page 400. You will note that roman numerals are used= for first-level headings, capital letters for second-level headings, and Ar= abic numbers for third-level headings.

<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>ii. In an introduction, include a thesis statement expressing the purpose of your paper and indicate the plan of development that you will follow. The sectio= n on writing introductions for an essay (pages 87-90) is also appropriate for the introductory section of the research paper. Notice that the model research paper uses a two-paragraph introduction (page 401).

iii.= As you move from introduction to mai= n body to conclusion, strive for unity, support, and coherence so that your paper = will be clear and effective. Repeatedly ask, "Does each of my supporting paragraphs develop the thesis of my paper?" Use the checklist on the inside front cover of this book to make sure that your paper touches all fo= ur bases of effective writing.

C. = Step 6: Use an Acceptable Format and Method of Documentation

i. <= /span>Format

<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>a. The model paper shows acceptable formats for a research paper, including the st= yle recommended by the Modern Language Association (MLA). Be sure to note caref= ully the comments and directions that are set in small print in the margins of e= ach page.

ii. = Documentation of Sources

<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>a. You must tell the reader the sources (books, articles, and so on) of borrowed m= aterial in your paper. Whether you quote directly or summarize ideas in your own wo= rds, you must acknowledge your sources. In the past, you may have used footnotes= and a bibliography to cite your sources. Here you will learn a simplified and widely accepted documentation style used by the MLA.

b. <= /span>Citations within a Paper

01. When citing a source, you must mention the author's n= ame and the relevant page number. The author's name may be = given either in the sentence you are writing or in parentheses following the sent= ence. Here are two examples:

In <= u>The Way We Really Are, Stephanie Coontz writes, "Right up through the 1940s, ties of work, friendship, neighborhood, ethnicity, extended kin, and voluntary organizations were as important a so= urce of identity for most Americans, and sometimes a more important source of obligation, than marriage and the nuclear family" (37).

&quo= t;Some [. . .] are looking for a way to reclaim family closeness in an increasingly fast-paced society [. . .]. Still others worry about unsavory influences in school—drugs, alcohol, sex, violence" (Kant= rowitz and Wingert 66).

<= span style=3D'mso-list:Ignore'>c. There are several points to note about citations within the paper:

01. <= /span>When the author's name is provided in parentheses, only the last name is given.

' There is no punctuation between the author's name and the page number.=

02. <= /span>The parenthetical citation is placed after the borrowed material but before the p= eriod at the end of the sentence.03. <= /span>If you are using more than one work = by the same author, include a shortened version of the title within the parentheti= cal citation. =

' For example, suppose you were using two books by Stephanie Coontz, and you included a second quotation from her = book The Way We Really Are. Your citation within the text would be:

(Coontz, Really Are 39).

' Note that a comma separates the author's last name from the abbreviated title and page number.

d. <= /span>Citations at the End of a Paper

01. Your paper should end with a list of "Works Cited" which includes all the sources actually used in the paper. (Don't list any other sources, no matter how many you h= ave read.) Look at the "Works Cited" page in the model research paper (page 409) and note the following points:

02. <= /span>The list is orga= nized alphabetically according to the authors' last names. Entries are not number= ed.

03. <= /span>Entries are double-spaced, with no e= xtra space between entries.04. <= /span>After the first line of each entry, = there is a half-inch indentation for each additional line in the entry.

05. <= /span>Use the abbreviation qtd. In when citing a quotation from another source.

' For example, a quotation from Edward Wolff on page 2 of the pa= per is from a book not by Wolff but by Sylvia Ann Hewlett and Cornel West. The citation is therefore handled as follows:

The economist Edward Wolff explains the loss of time:

Over a thirty-year time span, parental time has declined 13 percent. The

<= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;color:black'>time parents h= ave available for their children has been squeezed by the

<= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;color:black'>rapid shift of mothers into the paid labor force, by escalating divorce

<= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;color:black'>rates and the subsequent abandonment of children by their fathers, and

<= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;color:black'>by<= /span> an increa= se in the number of hours required on the job. The average

<= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;color:black'>worker is now at= work 163 hours a year more than in 1969, which adds

up to an extra month of work annually. (Qtd. in Hewlett and West 48)<= span style=3D'font-size:10.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:Arial;mso-b= idi-font-family: "Times New Roman";color:white'>

III. <= span style=3D'color:white'>Activity

A. <= span style=3D'mso-spacerun:yes'> On a separate sheet of paper, conver= t the information in each of the following references into the correct form = for a list of "Works Cited." Use the appropriate model above as a gui= de.

i. <= /span>A book by Mary Gordon called Seeing = Through Places and published in New York by Scribner in 2000.

ii. = An article by Walter Kirn titled "The Love Machines" on pages 73-74 of the February 14, 2000, i= ssue of Time.=

iii.= An article by Tracey Wong Briggs tit= led "Making Global Connections" on pages Al and A8 of the February 17, 2000, i= ssue of USA Today.=

iv. = A book by Diane E. Papalia and Sally W. Olds titled Human Development and published in a seventh editi= on by McGraw-Hill in New York in 1999.

v. <= /span>An article by Christopher Hitchens titled "Goodbye to All That" on pages 37-47 of the November 1998 issue of Harper's.

Gord= on, Mary. Seeing Through Places. New York: Scribner,= 2000.

Kirn, Walter. "The love Machines." Time 14 Feb. 2000: = 73-74.

Brig= gs, Tracey Wong. "Making Global Connections." USA Today 17 Feb. 2000: A1+.

Papalia, Diane E., and = Sally W. Olde. Human Development. 7th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999.

Hitchens, Christopher. "Goodbye to All That." Harper's Nov. 1990: 37-47.